Circular Reasoning (Petitio Principi): Having the truth of the conclusion already apparent in one of the premises. Refutation: You cannot prove something by stating it twice. Example: Abby: Bob, contraceptive use must be ethically acceptable because the prevention of pregnancy does not violate any moral codes. Side Note: In the example, the clause after the “because” (the reason) says the essentially the same thing as the clause before the “because” (the conclusion).
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