Religion Overview Eastern and Western
Before I begin, please take a moment to check out an interesting blog on religion: https://nametheunknown.com/
Also, check out the interview in which I answer questions about what I would say to people who are genuinely curious about religion: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pc-OCE6Y_Zc
WORLD RELIGION: An Overview
ME??? Teaching YOU about religion?
It is certainly not my intent to make anyone feel like they do not know what they ought to know in this area. We live in a world where religion is everywhere, although many of us have not really taken the time to get even a broad overview of the subject. Hence, there are many out there – even educated people – who could use a little general introduction or refresher in the area.
If you are like me, you have found that this subject is one in which people are often very passionate, both in defending their own beliefs and attacking others. I have also found that there is a significant portion of the populace that doesn’t even want to get the discussion down to that level; rather they assert that there is no truth in the subject area in the first place… that religion is a matter of faith, and not fact. While I have some logical problems with that position, this is not the time and place to address them fully, suffice it say at this point that it seems quite difficult to maintain the common position that a person’s belief system is their own, and should not be analyzed, judged, or even categorized. Concerning the matter at hand, though, when dealing with people who are struggling with what their religious beliefs are doing to their emotional health, we need to address it… and have a handle on that with which we are dealing.
Concerning Talking To People about Their Religious Beliefs
First off, there are those who are very resistant to having their belief system/practice analyzed. Many (most likely) unwittingly hold to the Two Story Theory which asserts that 1) there are two dimensions in the universe, the spiritual and the physical, and 2) there are two separate standards that should be used to assess them: the physical realm can be assessed using reason, logic, and truth, while the spiritual dimension is assessed using subjective feelings and faith- and these should never be mixed up. One should never assess the physical world of real things with faith and feelings. One should never assess the spiritual dimension with logic, reason, or try to determine truth.
Secondly, there are those that think that their own set of beliefs about spiritual matters should not be put in the same category as religion. Typically, at least in my experience, these folks have some beliefs or experiences that have left a bad taste in their mouth concerning religion. A common response that people have this is to make a distinction between organized religion and spirituality. I have no issues with people defining things anyway they so choose… it is a free country. I do, however, have an issue with people telling other people that they don’t want others do categorize either their beliefs or them as a person in any way other than how they do so to themselves. I will give you an example.
Let’s say we have a regular guy – Bob, and he becomes acquainted with a lady, Alice, and they strike up a conversation about whether god is male or female. Bob holds that god is a female energy, and Alice holds that god is male. After Bob presents his view, Alice tells him that his religious beliefs are weird and heretical, Bob counters with the claim that his views are 1) non-religious and therefore 2) cannot be heretical, because something can only be heresy if it goes against accepted religion. Since he is not religious and has no religious views, they simply cannot be heresy. On top of that, there is no truth in the area of spirituality, so the notion of heresy is just plain stupid.
Okay. Now what? If you were there joining the two over lunch when this exchange occurred, what would you say? Time to get the check and leave? Might be a wise choice, but I would encourage you to take a risk and try to help the conversation to keep going. I use the analogy of plumbing. Let’s say one person is telling the other person that they are having some issues with a leaky kitchen faucet and a plugged up toilet. The other person then suggests the name of a good plumber. In response, the first person says that it not a plumbing problem… it is a problem with the faucet and the toilet. The second person then replies that faucets and toilets are part of the home’s plumbing. Now, the first person gets very defensive and asserts that plumbers and the field of plumbing are altogether useless cheats and sneaks and do nothing but waste our time and money… and they want nothing to do with either… and anyway, it is NOT a plumbing problem….they prefer to say that they are having household fluid control issues.
Can you see how these two situations are similar? Both involve an emotional resistance to the use of certain terms and categories and refusal to allow others to categorize or define them with labels with which they are not comfortable. It would seem reasonable to say to the first person that, indeed, it is fine to define terms anyway they so choose. No problem there. It is indeed a free country and you can use words anyway that you want. There can be, however a problem when you are trying to communicate with others when you use words differently than the rest of the population. If one does, one may very well experience being misunderstood by others and also not know for sure what others are saying.
The basic point of this is that we should be ready to have to deal with people who are resistant to the label of “religion” or religious”. You may choose to simply let it drop… and not use the labels… or you may choose to have a bit of a discussion about understanding the need for good communication. I tend towards the latter, in general, but then, I am an annoying person that way.
Thirdly, many people express that they do not feel comfortable discussing religion at all, often on the premise that religion is just too personal. I suggest to them that, in general, so is impotency, irregularity, feelings of inferiority or that we have disappointed our fathers, but if there are truly problems in those areas, that we should probably bring others who are knowledgeable in the fields to come to their aid. I also suggest to you that often people do not want to discuss their religious beliefs because they are a tad insecure about them for three reasons: 1) their beliefs are not well thought-through or analyzed, and therefore may be found to be contradictory, or unsupported, or otherwise intellectually suspect, 2) that if number 1 is true, that they must not consider religion to be as important as is should be and they may very well feel ashamed for not having it occupy its rightful place in life (as defined by their grandmother), and 3) there may be some feelings of shame if their beliefs are brought out into the open since their real life practices of the religion are not in conformity with the beliefs. We call that hypocrisy and most of us are not all that excited about being seen as hypocrites. It is much easier to not let others know what we believe!
It is my experience, however, that most people will open up and share their thoughts on the matter if they believe that they with be honestly listened to and sincerely not judged. Kinda sounds like what we all want and need… no matter what the topic!
The Nature of Religion
We could ask a hundred people what religion is and probably get as many different answers. Instead of asking the person with the leaky faucet and plugged toilet about the nature of the field of plumbing, we might be better off talking to either a tradesperson or – even better – someone who belongs to a body of people who study the field. In the case of religion, when one goes to those who are in the field of Religious Studies, one finds the definitions to be far less varied. You can certainly find people who send time discussing such ethereal concepts as Ground of Being and Ultimate Reality, but I prefer to latch onto definitions and concepts that average people on the street – landscapers, bartenders, taxi drivers, and car salespersons – can readily wrap their heads around. So, that is what we will have here. If you were to go check out the various books used as textbooks in World/Comparative Religion courses, you would find the following common elements in defining religion:
Religion: people holding/people’s beliefs concerning a set of a specific type of doctrines including existence, deities, afterlife, and etc.
For a group to be called a religion by many in the field, many or even all of the following elements would need to be present:
- Adherents (a significant number of followers)
- A Set of Non-Practiceable Doctrines, including
- a positive doctrine about a Divine Being,
- a positive doctrine about a spiritual dimension
- a doctrine that there is a “Problem” in the spiritual dimension in the universe,
- a doctrine that there is a known solution to the problem, and known application of the solution
- a positive doctrine about existence after death
- A Set of Practiceable Doctrines, including,
- a set of moral standards
- a response or set of practices that, if done, will overcome the problem of the universe, and
- some type of ritual and/or form of worship
- Some form of Spiritual Authority (usually embodied in a person or group of persons and/or a book or set of writings
Some points of clarification –
Authority: the right or power to tell someone what to do and then to give consequences for obedience or disobedience
Spiritual Authority: authority that has as its ultimate source a Divine Being
Divine Being/ God: a being that:
- Is, in its essence, a spirit
- Has extra/supra-natural powers
- Has extra/supra-natural knowledge
- Has forward/future immortality
Major Religion: a religion that has grown beyond the bounds of a single nation or culture
Living Religion: a religion that has breathing followers
7 Major Living Religions:
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Taoism
- Confucianism
- Judaism
- Christianity
- Islam
4 Eastern Religions:
1) Hinduism
2) Buddhism
3) Taoism
4) Confucianism
Sin in the Western Traditions – disobedience to a specific prescription/proscription given by the personal Divine Being resulting in separation
Sin in the Eastern Traditions – minor negative acts that result in minor karmic debt and administered impersonally
Evil in the Eastern Traditions – major negative acts that result in major karmic debt and administered impersonally
Evil in the Western Traditions – any thoughts or acts by a free agent that are not in accordance with the will or ways of a personal Diving being
Salvation: escape/release/overcoming of the problem of the universe
Faith – accepting as fact the doctrines of the religion
Orthodoxy – the body of doctrines that have been established as the official belief system of a particular religion/sect
Orthopraxy – the body of moral codes/doctrines that have been established as the official belief system of a particular religion/sect
Sect – a subdivision of a particular religion that holds to the core doctrines, but also hold to singular and unique doctrines that distinguish it from other sects (known as denominations in the Christian religion)
Heresy – a subdivision of a particular religion that rejects one or more core doctrines of the religion
Cat School of Salvation – salvation is accomplished by acts of the Divine alone, given by grace and as a gift, not requiring works by the individual
Monkey School of Salvation – salvation is accomplished by acts of the Divine along with acts of the individual, accomplished by a Divine/human cooperative, requiring instrumental works of righteousness of by the individual
Sudden School of Salvation – salvation occurs at some specific point in time in the individual’s life; before that moment they are under the negative effects of the problem of the universe, and after that moment they are not; most often associated with the Cat School of salvation
Gradual School of Salvation – salvation occurs gradually over time, typically being fully realized and accomplished at death; most often with the Monkey School of salvation
Works Righteousness model of Salvation – salvation comes as a result of the following elements in this order: Faith, Good Works, Salvation (good works are instrumental and necessary for salvation)
Faith Righteousness model of Salvation – salvation comes as a result of the following elements in this order: Faith, Salvation, Good Works (good works are not necessary for salvation; they are a natural result of salvation)
Omniscience: the quality of being all-knowing
Omnipresence: the quality of being present everywhere at once
Supra-natural power: the quality of having abilities, strength or power greater than humans
Supra-natural knowledge: the quality of having knowledge greater than humans
Monism: belief that the universe is made up of only one substance – can be either spirit or matter
Dualism: belief that the universe is made up of a spiritual dimension (spirit) and a physical dimension (matter)
Pantheism: belief that god is everything and everything is god
Priest: a spiritual intermediary who goes to god on behalf of man, typically, though not always, though a sacrificial system
Prophet: a spiritual intermediary who comes to man on behalf of a god and brings a message to them
Abraham – father of the faithful for Jews, Christians, and Muslims, believed to have lived sometime around 2000-1800BC in Asia Minor and the Palestine/Israel area.
The Religions:
General –
Religion: a belief system/group of people who follow the belief system that has the necessary elements of a religion and these elements are, in some major points distinguishable from other belief systems
Major Religion: a religion that has grown beyond the bounds of a single nation or culture
Living Religion: a religion that has breathing followers
7 Major Living Religions:
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Taoism
- Confucianism
- Judaism
- Christianity
- Islam
4 Eastern Religions:
1) Hinduism
2) Buddhism
3) Taoism
4) Confucianism
Qualities of Eastern Religions:
- Pantheistic
- Monistic
- Belief in reincarnation
- Time is circular and Non-Teleological
Qualities of Eastern Gods:
- Non-personal (i.e. a force only)
- Non-vocal (do not “speak”)
- Non-volitional (i.e. do not “act” in the world
3 Western Religions:
- Judaism
- Christianity
- Islam
Qualities of Western Religions:
- Monotheistic or Polytheistic
- Dualistic
- Belief in one primary physical life (and often a secondary after resurrection from the dead)
- Time Is Linear and Teleological
Qualities of Western Gods:
- Personal (i.e. not just a force, but a person that is self-aware and has a distinct individual mind and will)
- Vocal (i.e. speaks by way of revelation to mankind)
- Volitional (i.e. does “act” in the world by way of miracles, incarnations, theophanies, and etc.)
Specific Religions –
Animism___________________________________
Animism: Animism is the worldview that non-human entities—such as animals, plants, and inanimate objects—possess a spiritual essence. Typically adherents believe in many, many small diving beings that have limited, but suprahuman powers.
Shamam: Tribal person who is believed to know/practice rituals necessary to appease / manipulate the many gods around them.
Hinduism__________________________________
Creation Hymns from the Rig Veda & Manu Smirti
https://www.templepurohit.com/vedic-gods/
http://www.worldhistorycharts.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/hindu-gods.png
Vedic Gods Listed by Number of Songs of Worship
___________________________________________________________
Classical/Vedic Hinduism
Classical Vedism: the religion of the Aryans based on the sacred texts known as the Vedas
Vedas: the 4 sacred texts of Classical Vedism (Rg, Sama, Atharva, Yajur)
The Problem/ Solution/Goal of the Universe in Classical Hinduism: Problem = separation from the gods through disobedience/lack of honoring them; Solution: reconciliation to the gods through priestly sacrifices and renewed obedience; goal = going to an unnamed place of bliss after death
Primary Deities: Purusha / Aditi, Indra, Agni, Soma
Primary Moral Principle in Classical Hinduism: submissiveness to the Gods
Modern/Vedantic Hinduism
Texts: Mahabarata, Ramayana, Aranyakas, Brahmanas
Upanishads: philosophical treatises written to teach/explain dating from 500-750 BC, although many attribute some to Vedic times
Reincarnation: a belief in the cyclical return of the soul to new bodies (developed in the Upanishads around 500-750BC)
Primary Dieties: Brahman, Vishnu, Shiva
Krshna: the incarnate form of Vishnu who cyclically comes to earth to help mankind out because they have made a mess of things
Bhagavad Gita: the ‘New Testament” of Modern Hinduism, being a small chapter lifted out of one of the two great history / myth texts of Hinduism, the Mahabarata (the other being the Ramayana of Valmiki). It is now considered an Upanishad
Arjuna: the main character of the Bhagavad Gita who determines not to lead his army into battle, but then his chariot driver (revealed as Krshna) talks some sense into him
4 Stages of Life In India:
- Student
- Householder
- Forest Dweller
- Renouncer
4 Primary Castes In India, as laid out in the Rg Veda:
- Brahman Priesthood
- Warrior
- Artisan/Shopkeeper
- Peasant Worker
Rta – The orderly structure and operation of the universe
Yoga: A path that leads to spiritual growth
Samsara: the eternal wheel of existence which continually turns and eventually begins all over again
Moksha: release from Samsara, achieved by coming to the realization of the true oneness of self and the universe (Atman is Brahman) excusing oneself from the need to continually be reincarnated
Karma – the divine law of effect and cause, a principle in the universe that ensures that cosmic justice is done. One’s state in life this go ‘round has been predetermined by the actions and choices one made in the previous lives (usually several of the last). Every individual has there own Karmic debt to pay off, whether good or bad.
Dharma – primarily duty, though also translated at rule, law, etc., which refers to the specific set of duties that are incumbent upon an individual based on their station in life (caste) and their stage of life (the four stages), and including the duties laid upon them by their particular holy guy.
The Problem/ Solution/Goal of the Universe in Modern Hinduism: Problem = Maya = illusion = people see a multiplicity of “things” in the universe, when, in the deepest reality, these is only one thing, Brahman; Solution= coming to the spiritual realization that one’s self is identical in essence and nature with Brahman. It comes through yogic discipline; goal = Moksha = release from the rebirth cycle.
Primary Moral Principle in Modern Hinduism: submission to one’s place in the universe and obedience to the duties of that place.
Buddhism__________________________________________
The Eight Fold Path of Buddhism
Transmigration – reincarnation, specifically Buddhist reincarnation which involves continuous change, even while in the non-embodied state
Siddhartha Gautama – the Indian prince’s son who achieved enlightenment and became known as the enlightened one – the Buddha; lived in the late 6th and early 5th C. BC. Also known to his followers as the Compassionate One, The Shakyamuni (the sage of the Shakya tribe)
Asceticism – the practice of denying physical pleasures and / or even necessities for the purpose of spiritual improvement. Often includes active inflicting of physical pain
Nirvana – (literally emptiness, nothingness) the goal of Buddhist effort, in which the self is completely annihilated
The Four Noble Truths –
- Suffering is Universal
- Suffering Comes From Desire
- Suffering Can be Ended
- Suffering Can Be Ended By Following The Eightfold Path
Problem/Solution/Goal of the universe in Buddhism: Problem = humans change, therefore they desire, therefore they suffer; Solution= through mediation/practice of the 8-fold path, annihilating the self; Goal = no self => no change => no existence
Primary moral concept: selflessness/compassion
Major Sects: Theravadin School, Mahayana School
Minor Sects: Vajrayana, Nichiren, Tibetan (Tantric), Zen (Chen)
Taoism___________________________________________
Writings of Chuang Tzu Sections 10-8
Tao – the diving energy of the universe which flows through all things
Yin – the dark pole of the Tao: it is passive, dark, feminine, negative, downward-seeking, consuming and corresponds to the night, cold, death,
Yan – the light pole of the Tao: it is active/aggressive, light, masculine, upward seeking, creating, and corresponds to the day, warmth, and life.
Problem/Solution/Goal of the universe in Taoism: Problem = mankind is out of sync with the Tao; Solution = humans need to get back ito sync with the Tao, which is accomplished through non-activity, studying/being close to nature; Goal = eternal physical existence
Primary Moral Concept: passivity, connection with nature
Confucianism______________________________________
Works of Mencius Book I Chapters 1-10
Fu Tzu – founder of Confucianism
Problem/Solution/Goal of the universe in Confucianism: Problem = mankind has left the old ways and humans no longer accept the place they have in society; Solution = study the old ways and submit to where the universe has placed you, and pay attention to the Five Constant Relationships; Goal = success in life in performing your duty as a good public servant
Primary Moral Concept: submissiveness to your lot in life and faithfully doing the duties attached to them
Five Constant Relationships: 1) child to parent, 2) younger sibling to older sibling, 3) younger friend to old friend, 4) spouse to spouse, and 5) citizen to ruler
Judaism__________________________________________
Classical Judaism/Hebraism
Yahweh – the name of god in Judaism
Three promises to Abraham – land (all that he walked on and saw during his lifetime), seed (offspring/descendents), and blessing (beneficial/good things happen)
B’rit – covenant = contract
Problem/Solution/Goal of the universe in Classical Judaism/Hebraism – Problem = mankind and individual humans are separated from Yahweh because of Adam’s sin and their personal sins; Solution = covenant obedience and bringing sacrifices to the priests as substitutionary payment (atonement) for the sins; Goal = a life of blessing in the promised land and, less importantly, a positive existence after death
Primary Moral Concept: covenant obedience to Yahweh as revealed in the Torah
Modern Judaism
Mishna – the oldest authoritative postbiblical collection of Jewish oral laws, systematically compiled by numerous scholars (called tannaim) over a period of about two centuries. The codification was given final form early in the 3rd century ad by Judah ha-Nasi. The Mishna supplements the written, or scriptural, laws found in the Pentateuch. It presents various interpretations of selective legal traditions that had been preserved orally since at least the time of Ezra (c. 450 bc).
Gemara – a rabbinic commentary on and interpretation of the collection of Jewish law known as the Mishna.
Halakha – the collective body of Jewish religious laws derived from the written and Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical commandments, subsequent Talmudic and rabbinic law, and the customs and traditions compiled in the many books such as the Shulchan Aruch
Mitzvah – duty to Yahweh, taken on directly (as opposed to indirectly though the parents) upon completion of the ceremony of becoming an adult) and in response to the directives/teachings of the rabbis
Rabbi – teacher
Problem/Solution/Goal of the universe in Modern Judaism – Problem = mankind and individual humans are separated from Yahweh because of Adam’s sin and their personal sins; reconciliation through practicing mitzvah (as prescribed in the Talmud) and atonement for the sins through prayer; Goal = a life of blessing in the promised land and, less importantly, a positive existence after death
Primary Moral Concept: doing one’s mitzvah = duty to Yahweh as expressed in the later Jewish writings, esp. the Talmud
Modern Sects:
Hasidic Judaism arose in 12th-century Germany as a movement emphasizing asceticism and mystical experience born out of love and humility before God.
Conservative Judaism: beliefs, distinctness, practices A modern-day branch of the Jewish religion, Conservative Judaism (known as Masorti Judaism outside the USA) is a moderate sect – on the spectrum of Jewish beliefs and practices – that seeks to avoid the extremes of Orthodox Judaism and Reform Judaism.
Orthodox Judaism – A modern-day branch of the Jewish religion, Orthodox Judaism is the most traditional expression of modern Judaism when compared to Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism.
Reform Judaism is the most liberal expression of modern Judaism. In America, Reform Judaism is organized under the Union for Reform Judaism (formerly known as the Union of American Hebrew Congregations), whose mission is “to create and sustain vibrant Jewish congregations wherever Reform Jews live.
Christianity________________________________________
Serenity Prayer Reinhold Niebuhr
Classical Christianity
Substitutionary Atonement – one party paying the sin debt of another
Faith Righteousness model of Salvation – salvation comes as a result of the following elements in this order: Faith, Salvation, Good Works (good works are not necessary for salvation; they are a natural result of salvation)
Homolegomena – the group of writings that were universally agreed upon as being scriptures and therefore officially a part of the Bible at the Council of Carthage
Problem/Solution/Goal of the universe in Classical Christianity – Problem = mankind and individual humans are separated from God because of Adam’s sin and their personal sins; Solution = reconciliation through faith in the atoning work of God’s Son and rebirth and union with the Father through the Holy Spirit; Goal = a transformed life here, and then spending eternity in God’s presence after death
Primary Moral Concept: faith in the finished atoning work of Jesus and loving obedience to Him and his Apostles
Modern/non-classical Christianity
Works Righteousness model of Salvation – salvation comes as a result of the following elements in this order: Faith, Good Works, Salvation (good works are instrumental and necessary for salvation)
Problem/Solution/Goal of the universe in Modern/non-classical Christianity
Primary Moral Concept: love God and love and accept other humans; obedience to the dynamic authority of God’s revelation
Islam_____________________________________________
Hadith in the book of revelation by sahih al bukhari
Mohammed – founder of Islam, considered my Muslims to be the last and greatest prophet of Allah; live in Saudi Arabia in the 7th C.
Koran – primary canonical text of Islam, considered by Muslims to be a collection of revelation from Allah to Mohammed given through the archangel Gabriel over a period of time
Five Pillars Of Faith – 1) Confession = professing that there is only one God, Allah, and that Mohammed is His prophet, 2) Prayer = performing ritual prayers at 5 designated times of each day, 3) The third Pillar of Islam is to abstain from food and drink, as well as smoking and sex, between sunrise and sunset during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month in the Muslim calendar; , 4) Almsgiving = The fourth Pillar of Islam is to give alms to the poor. Muslims are supposed to donate a fixed amount of their property to charity every year, and 5) Pilgrimage = The fifth Pillar of Islam is to undertake the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one’s lifetime, if one is able, during the first days of Dhu’l-Hijja, the twelfth month of the Muslim calendar.
Problem/Solution/Goal of the Universe in Islam – Problem = mankind is separated from Allah because of disobedience to His revelation through the Prophets; Solution = submission to Allah and obedience to His revealed will; Goal = after death, attaining an existence in Paradise.
Primary Moral Concept: submission and obedience to Allah’s will as expressed in the Koran, the Hadith, Sunnah, and and Sharia Law
Sunnah – (Arabic: “habitual practice”) also spelled Sunna, the body of traditional social and legal custom and practice of the Islamic community. Along with the Qurʾān (the holy book of Islam) and Hadith (recorded sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), it is a major source of Sharīʿah, or Islamic law.
Jihad – requires Muslims to “struggle in the way of God” or “to struggle to improve one’s self and/or society.” Jihad is directed against the devil’s inducements, aspects of one’s own self, or against a visible enemy.
Halal – Islam prescribes a set of dietary guidelines for its believers to follow: In general, Islamic dietary law distinguishes between food and drink that are allowed (halal) and those that are prohibited (haram).
THE FIVE PILLARS OF FAITH
- Thou shall declare the testimony of faith and announce that there is one god Allah and that Mohammed is his prophet.
- Thou shall present yourself in holiness before Allah five times a day in prayer, facing his holy city.
- Fasting is prescribed for you, as it was prescribed for those before you, that you may learn self-restraint. Fast for a fixed number of days… Ramadan is the month in which was sent down as a guide to mankind, and clear signs for guidance and judgment between right and wrong.
- Everyone, whose financial conditions are above a certain specified minimum, must pay annually at least 2.5% of his savings to a deserving needy person, a new convert to Islam, a traveler, or one overwhelmed by debts.
- Once in a lifetime, anyone who is financially and physically able must go on the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, during the month of Hajj.
Six Articles of Faith
In Islam, Muslim doctrine is often summarized in “Six Articles of Faith.” These are the fundamental beliefs which every Muslim must ascribe to:
- One God (Allah) The central belief in Islam, and arguably the most important theme of Islam, is that there is one God. The Muslim name for God is “Allah,” which is Arabic for “the (al) God (Ilah).”
- The angels of God Angels in Islam are spiritual creatures that serve the purposes of Allah. They are messengers who relay communication to people and carry out other responsibilities. Angels, such as Gabriel (thought to be the same Gabriel as the one read about in the Christian New Testament), is mentioned in the Quran. Angels are often found in Islam art, revealing their importance to the Islamic worldview.
- The books of God, especially the Qur’an The Quran is the most important writing in the religion of Islam and is the highest authority in both religious and legal matters. The word “Quran” means “recitation” in Arabic. Muslims believe the Quran to be an errorless record of the angel Gabriel’s revelations to Muhammad, from 610 until his death in 632 AD. It is also believed to be a perfect copy of a Quran that has existed eternally in paradise.
- The prophets of God, especially Muhammad Muhammad is the most important historical and theological figure in Islam. His name, which means “highly praised,” reflects this. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 AD. His father died before he was born and his mother died when he was six-years-old. Muhammad was then raised primarily by his uncle, for whom he worked as a shepherd.
- The Day of Judgment (or the afterlife) The afterlife is very important to the Islamic worldview. Muslims believe in the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. Islam teaches that there will be a day of judgment when all humans will be divided between the eternal destinations of Paradise and Hell.
- The supremacy of God’s will (or predestination) Islam teaches that God not only foreknows, but also foreordains all that comes to pass in the world and in the lives of individuals.
Summary of Terms:
Transcendence:quality of being far above, possibly separate and removed.
Immanence: quality of being close at hand, intimately involved
Omniscience: the quality of being all-knowing
Omnipresence: the quality of being present everywhere at once
Supra-natural power: the quality of having abilities, strength or power greater than humans
Supra-natural knowledge: the quality of having knowledge greater than humans
Atheism: a positive assertion that there is no Divine Being (typically monotheistic divine being)
Polytheism: belief in many powerful gods, each having their own domain or realm that they preside over
Monism: belief that the universe is made up of only one substance
Pantheism: belief that god is everything and everything is god
Animism: belief that there are multitude of small gods and they inhabit all or most individual entities in the physical world
Priest: a spiritual intermediary who goes to god on behalf of man, typically, though not always, though a sacrificial system
Prophet: a spiritual intermediary who comes to man on behalf of a god and brings a message to them
Shaman: the spiritual intermediary that serves the tribes who believe in animism, typically possessing the powers and/or knowledge to manipulate the gods (known in the west as a witch doctor)
Aryans: proto-european white folk who migrated to N. India and the Grecian peninsula bringing with them Vedism
Dravidians: the indigenous / native people of India who were conquered by the Aryans
Classical Vedism: the religion of the Aryans based on the sacred texts known as the Vedas
Vedas: the 4 sacred texts of Classical Vedism (Rg, Sama, Atharva, Yajur)
Rg Veda: the primary/base text of Vedism upon which the other Vedas are built, containing the primary cosmogony, cosmology, theogony and theology of Classical Vedism
Reincarnation: a belief in the cyclical return of the soul to new bodies
Qualities of Eastern Religions:
- Pantheistic
- Monistic
- Belief in Reincarnation
- Time Is Linear and Non-Teleological
Qualities of Eastern Gods:
- Non-personal (i.e. a force only)
- Non-vocal (do not “speak”)
- Non-volitional (i.e. do not “act” in the world)
One more quality of a “religion”: a belief that there is a problem in the universe and they have the solution
Brahman: the invisible, formless god behind the gods. The supreme One Thing in the universe. Sometimes referred to as the Creator god. One of the modern Triad of Gods
Vishnu: Another creator god, often referred to as the Preserver god. Another of the Triad of Gods
Shiva: The Destroyer god. Often depicted with several arms and legs. Another of the Triad of Gods.
Krshna: the incarnate form of Vishnu who cyclically comes to earth to help mankind out because they have made a mess of things
Arjuna: the main character of the Bhagavad Gita who determines not to lead his army into battle, but then his chariot driver (revealed as Krshna) talks some sense into him
4 Stages of Life In India:
- Student
- Householder
- Forest Dweller
- Renouncer
4 Primary Castes In India, as laid out in the Rg Veda:
- Brahman Priesthood
- Warrior
- Artisan/Shopkeeper
- Peasant Worker
The Problem of the Universe in Classical Hinduism / Vedism: Mankind does not obey the gods and it ticks them off and it causes a breakdown in Rta. Mankind is separated from the Gods’ benevolence and power.
The Solution to the Problem of the Universe in Vedism: Obedience to the Gods and restoration to them through priestly intervention
Rta – The orderly structure and operation of the universe
The Problem of the Universe in Modern Hinduism: Maya = illusion = people see a multiplicity of “things” in the universe, when, in the deepest reality, these is only one thing, Brahman
The Solution to the problem of the universe in modern Hinduism: coming to the spiritual realization that one’s self is identical in essence and nature with Brahman. It comes through yogic discipline. It results in Moksha.
Sannyasin / Yogi / Swami: A spiritual leader / guide; A holy guy
Yoga: A path that leads to spiritual growth. The most popular being:
- Bhakti – the yoga of devotion, love, adoration, etc.
- Jnana – the yoga of knowledge
- Karma – the yoga of work, service, duty
- Raja – the yoga of meditation (typically included assuming the lotus Position
Samsara: the eternal wheel of existence which continually turns and eventually begins all over again
Moksha: release from Samsara, achieved by coming to the realization of the true oneness of self and the universe (Atman is Brahman) excusing oneself from the need to continually be reincarnated
Bhagavad Gita: the ‘New Testament” of Modern Hinduism, being a small chapter lifted out of one of the two great history / myth texts of Hinduism, the Mahabarata (the other being the Ramayana of Valmiki). It is now considered an Upanishad
The Two Story Theory – the belief that the world of here and now (matter / time / space, etc.) has reality, therefore can be known, hence and can have true statements made about it. The spiritual dimension is otherwise. It has no objective reality, cannot be known, and therefore truth is irrelevant to it. Faith is the only mental act that has currency in the spiritual dimension.
Divine Protocol Theory: Theory that personal gods have a natural and expected right to determine what criteria must be met for humans to have fellowship with them.
Divine Wheel Model: The model that asserts that the approach to final unity/acceptance/salvation with the divine is best illustrated by the image of a wheel with a hub, the rim, and spokes. The hub in the center represents the divine center, the outside rim represents mankind living life, and the spokes represent various religious traditions as equally viable paths to the divine. In this model, all religions are legitimate ways to get to spiritual apotheosis.
Karma – the divine law of effect and cause, a principle in the universe that ensures that cosmic justice is done. One’s state in life this go ‘round has been predetermined by the actions and choices one made in the previous lives (usually several of the last). Every individual has there own Karmic debt to pay off, whether good or bad.
Dharma – primarily duty, though also translated at rule, law, etc., which refers to the specific set of duties that are incumbent upon an individual based on their station in life (caste) and their stage of life (the four stages), and including the duties laid upon them by their particular holy guy.
Canon – (originally, the standard rule or measure) the authoritative standards which govern a community, typically found in a book or set of books, written by and/or preserved by spiritual authorities. Sometimes the books or books themselves are referred to as the canon.
Eschatology: Branch of theology that deals with the “end times” – how the universe/world/time are going to wrap up.
Teleology – the end or goal that something has
Teleological – having an end or goal
Non-teleological – not having an end or goal
Worship – ascribing great worth or value to by attitude and action
Upanishads – any of the group of 112 spiritual treatises which serve as the basis for modern Hindu thought
Mahabarata – one of the two great history texts that are found within the modern Hindu canon
Ramayana – one of the two great history texts that are found within the modern Hindu canon
Faith – the act of attributing trusting trustworthiness to a source of information which concerns matters outside of one’s firsthand experience; also, the body of doctrines one holds as a result of believing
Logic – principles of correct thinking; includes definitive thought symbols, proper definitions, syntactically correct sentences, valid arguments, and consistent systems of thought
Knowledge – acquaintance with fact, truths, principles.
Know – to have first hand experience of – directly through the five senses
Believe – attributing trusting trustworthiness to a source of information which concerns matters outside of one’s firsthand experience
Relativism / Pluralism – the position that all possible alternative positions are equally suitable and that therefore there exists no “right” answer
Universalism / Absolutism – the position that there is objectively one correct answer within a set of possible alternatives and that therefore all others besides the “right” answer are wrong
Comprehensive Simultaneous Knowledge of a Set – that which is required to make confident assertions about anything concerning the set
Corporeal – having a body, physical or otherwise
Incorporeal – not having a body, physical or otherwise, but still existing; Not having edges. Usually considered the same as omnipresence
Transmigration – reincarnation, specifically Buddhist reincarnation which involves continuous change, even while in the non-embodied state
Siddhartha Gautama – the Indian prince’s son who achieved enlightenment and became known as the enlightened one – the Buddha; lived in the late 6th and early 5th C. BC. Also known to his followers as the Compassionate One, The Shakyamuni (the sage of the Shakya tribe)
Bodhisattva – an individual who has achieved enlightenment and could go straight to Nirvana, but chooses instead, because of his / her great compassion, to remain in the body and help others to achieve enlightenment
Arhat – an individual who has achieved enlightenment and who chooses to go immediately to Nirvana
Asceticism – the practice of denying physical pleasures and / or even necessities for the purpose of spiritual improvement. Often includes active inflicting of physical pain
Middle Way / Path – the notion put forth by the Buddha that the right path is the one which excludes the extremes
Nirvana – (literally emptiness, nothingness) the goal of Buddhist effort, in which the self is completely annihilated
The Four Noble Truths –
- Suffering is Universal
- Suffering Comes From Desire
- Suffering Can be Ended
- Suffering Can Be Ended By Following The Eight-fold Path